Are rebirth, old age etc. 'dukkha'? Or, merely *characterised* by dukkha?

This is admittedly a slightly tangential reply (click on the link to read it), but it speaks to the ‘absence of suffering/stress’ as being a source of happiness/relief >Sukha, and thus might shed some light on your question.

Regarding this, one of my favourite suttas is from Itivuttaka - 73, which speaks directly to the peace and joy of cessation, over and above that to be found in either the form or formless realms; ie there is still dukkha/stress to be found in all realms, until cessation/pari-nibbana.

With metta :slightly_smiling_face: :sunflower:

https://suttacentral.net/iti73/en/ireland

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